In Which Ways and to What Extent Can GMO Products Harm Health Research Paper

In Which Ways and to What Extent Can GMO Products Harm Health - Research Paper Example On the other hand, researchers have reached a concession that there is more to genetically modified crops other than just the high productivity. In essence, these products have negative health impacts on human beings and this is something to worry about. In Japan, the consumption of wheat has increased right from the period after the Second World War and the country has failed to satisfy this demand. Therefore, the country relies on import of wheat from other nations. The concern for human health in Japan has seen the import of wheat from other countries being stopped as the controversy of genetically modified wheat becomes a reality. Evaluation of a wide range of materials reveals that genetically modified food products have both the good and bad sides of it. The website resource provides the true definition of genetically modified organism and their social economic impacts. Genetically modified organisms (GMO) refers to a wide range of plants and animals that are genetically manipu lated to provide desirable impact in productivity of Agricultural products. The motive of this scientific action is to provide the world with a better sustainable economic environment where every country can sustain its population. In many countries, this culture has helped the agricultural sector to experience a drastic shift in productivity. However, this resource also states in black and white about the negative impacts of this science that has intruded the natural agricultural style. Among the listed effects of this science is that the consumers of these food products will experience a lower nutrient level, antibiotic resistance, more cases of food allergy and poisoning. This is the impact that Japan anticipates as they continues to import wheat from other nations. In reality the resource provides an explanation for the possible reason why Japan declined import of wheat from other countries. The superiority of this resource lies in its deep coverage of the matters surrounding th e controversy of genetically modified products. Karimi (2013), a website updater, presents a rather biased GMO timeline and the historical development of this agricultural technology. The GMO matter started way back in 1935 and a slow and progressive development of the technology has made the topic a sensitive matter today. It provides a broad coverage of the legal aspect of the GMO since its first development and its acceptability in many countries today. Although the website appears to be subjective and over-scores on the negative impacts of the GMO in the society, it provides a ground to understand the proliferation of GMO culture in the world today (Greider, 26 Oct. 2003). This timeline coincides with the import culture of GMO in Japan since the time when the country’s demand for wheat increased. In Japan, the country import culture developed shortly after the Second World War (1945) and has continued to grow. This historical coverage points out to the possible period tha t Japan has suffered from the unlabeled GMO wheat until 2012 when the country became more conscious of the GMO products. The Public press channels have played a great role in asserting the public on the nature of this new technology and garnering public opinions on the matter. Strom (2013) wrote an investigative article to garner public opinions on their take on the proliferation the GMO technology and its impact on

Welsh Education Essay Example for Free

Welsh Education Essay According to Welsh Assembly Government the provisions of education is aimed at liberating talent, to empowering of the people of Wales, as well as meet the job and skills departments, as well as the creation of sustainable future (Randall, 1975). To show its commitment the government supports all stages of learning (Randall, 1975). The 1944 education is one of the most significant changes in education for Welsh. The 1944 Act was geared to aligning the education system in Wales to match standards in other common wealth countries. The 1944 Education Act also introduced free secondary school education as well as consolidating both church and state schools to ensure both maintained high standards of education (Randall, 1975). Major changes in the education in Wales have always corresponded to major social events as well as political events and particularly election. The year 1988 saw the introduction of ERA which was met with stiff resistance from teachers and parents although that did not influence the then leadership in government to consider revising the policy. Another significant change took place in 1992 in which schools gained control over the school budges (IMS) as well as a system in which schools began operating independent of the local councils. Other major changes were experienced in 1997 which saw the introduction of smaller class sizes, creation of education action zones to favour marginalised areas as well as the setting up of a general teaching council which aimed at improving the standards of education and at the same time ensuring effective teaching. Other recent changes in the year 2005 and 2006 have included introduction of Welsh Baccalaureate, which continues to be applied side by side with the long existing GCSE and A-level. Other changes have included introduction of breakfast in primary schools and a play curriculum for 3-7 year olds. Finally if the recommendations of Rees commission on higher education will be adhered to, every qualified student in Wales will continue to study without worrying about fees. The purpose of education is to ensure subject mastery, which is a vital pre-requisite in any profession. While not all careers are embedded in subject matter, certainly education and subsequent subject mastery is very vital for one to become a qualified professional. This calls for a deep studying and understanding of the usually complex subject matter. The above, points to the importance of the education to the growth of the profession. First of all, education enables professionals to keep abreast with new research findings in their profession. Since knowledge is dynamic, discoveries of new concepts are common and therefore professionals are better off if they remain in touch with new scientific discoveries concerning their professions. The above is important if professionals are going to be responsive to the needs of their organizations and the society at large. Education is also very important to professionals in that it gives them the necessary skills required to deal with people in their day to day running of their business affairs. It is through education that, a professional comes into contact with scholarly materials that play an important role in preparing a professional into becoming qualified and shaping their career. Education is evidently important to the growth of any profession; there is a need for the improvement of the training and curriculum so that the kind of education students receive is more responsive to the needs of the clients in the organizations where they serve. It is only through education that professionals can perform their duties more diligently, faithfully and effectively. In addition, the design of the curriculum programs should be aligned with the needs of the job market. The achievement of the purpose of education is largely dependent on how effective the teaching and learning process is. Effective teaching in England both at the local education authority as well as the higher education has been a subject of study by many scholars and commission. However most scholars concur that, the status of the teacher that is; qualified teacher status or lack of the qualified teacher status plays a very significant role in determining how teachers end up teaching. Equally important is the commitment and experiences of the teachers. The need for effective teaching is further complicated by the fact that the needs for schools differ widely depending on the facilities available, location as well as the type of students the schools are likely to admit. For example schools located in rural areas or schools serving marginalised communities such as the blacks and immigrants may have to adopt different teaching strategies so as to be effective in teaching. Such schools are likely to go for the strategies, which meet the needs of the vulnerable children they enroll. When designing or determining the most suitable or effective strategies for schools it is important to bear in mind the level of the pupils. Strategies, which may be effective in primary school level, may fail terribly if applied to higher education level. Developmental stages must be considered by teachers. For example primary school pupils are more likely to experience emotional imbalances than high school students. This calls for teachers to be careful on the way they plan for their teaching sessions. To counter behavioural barriers to effective teaching (Department for Education and Employment, (1997) suggests several forms of interventions such as behaviour management through training programmes, change of class environment as well as introduction of rewards or punishment to influence behaviour. The effectiveness of teaching in the UK and Wales has in the past been measured by performance of the students. However this kind of measurement is faulty and may place on the teacher a heavy burden of blame when performance is low and at the same time lead to praising of the teacher when performance goes up. According to (Tiffin, Rajasingham, 1995. 12-68), there is a lot to effective teaching than the exam results. For instance there is the issue of legislation, the kind of legislation in place can hinder or promote effective learning depending on how well suitable they are. Equally important is the class environment, which may include the size of the class, the facilities available in the school, the level of training of the teachers as well as kind of pupils or students in the class. Very important is the methodology teachers’ use in the teaching. This calls for the effective teachers to integrate all the applicable learning and teaching methods. The above serves to underscore the fact that teaching is just one component of learning which plays an important role in determining learning outcomes. For the education process to take place in an effective manner several factors are necessary; such include availability of teaching resources such as materials and staff, a conducive learning environment as well as the right working relationship between staff and students, students and parents as well as between staff and student (Department for Education and Employment, 1997). If the above is lacking the learning process is curtailed, students are likely to perform poorly, teachers are likely to get de-motivated and in general education standards diminish. According to the Department for Education and Employment, (1997. 4 -19) the social context of learning influences teaching and learning. These social contexts may be beyond teachers’ control in most cases. This implies that the kind of school one attended rather than the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the teachers was responsible for the performance. Pupils provided with an environment of fostering were more likely to excel academically than those pupils put in a social context, which is not empowering. According to (Department for Education and Employment, 1997) effective teaching calls for teachers to put more emphasis on academic learning, good utilization of learning time as well as offering result-based teaching whereby the pupils are made aware of the goals and objectives of the learning process.

Nixons Secret Bombings in Cambodia :: President Richard Nixon

Why did President Richard Nixon decide to have secret bombing in Cambodia in 1969? A. Plan of the investigation: i. Subject of the investigation: Why did President Richard Nixon decide to have secret bombing in Cambodia in 1969? The purpose of investigating Nixon?s secret bombing of Cambodia is to understand his real intentions. Also, to find out why he had to hide this from the Congress and the media. Wouldn?t it mean that he is abusing his power by keeping it a secret and not getting permission to do so from the Congress? Last, but not least, is to understand how Nixon actually destroyed neutral Cambodia. ii. Methods: a. Evidences from the biographical books on Nixon and Henry Kissinger will be used to support my thesis and topic question. b. The internet will be another source to find out information on the backgrounds of Cambodia and the events that were happening during the period when Cambodia was secretly bombed. c. Research for real conversations that Nixon had with his other helping mates about the decision to secretly bomb Cambodia. d. Find out the real issue he had that led him to secretly bomb Cambodia. Especially when he did not get permission from the Congress, and when the public found out, how did they react to Nixon?s actions. B. Summary of Evidence: -George McGovern wrote, ?The secret, unconstitutional bombing of [Cambodia] was the clearest ground for a Nixon impeachment. It was a vastly more serious crime than the break-in at Watergate.?# - ?In 1973, after the bombing was finally discovered, both Nixon and Kissinger maintained?that the secrecy was necessary to protect Sihanouk, who was variously described as? ?allowing? the raids, so long as they were covert. They maintained that the areas were unpopulated and that only Vietnamese Communist troops, legitimate targets, were there.?# -Nixon had already known that the American ground offensive, from the summer of 1966 to the Tet offensive of 1968, had failed to destroy the North Vietnamese (communists). Therefore he had an offensive against the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Cambodia. The Communists were making an effective use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Cambodia. Suddenly, Nixon ordered the bombing of the Cambodian sanctuaries. His instincts were to respond violently to the Communist offensive.

Influences on the Philippines Essay

Although some may have had a longer lasting impact on the Philippines each one helped create the Philippines to what it is today. India has influenced the Philippines in all aspects of life, from writing, music, and language to even religion. Because of the high trade between India and the Philippines India was able to have a huge impact on the Philippines. Some religion that can be seen from Indian influence is Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. This can be seen in the most southern island, Mindanao. Some Tagalog words are even Indian influenced, such as mukha (face), putong (turban), and guro (teacher). Just like India the Chinese have also left a mark in the language but that is not what they are most known for. The Chinese has left many different types of food in the Philippines that are now in the every day lives of Filipinos. Some famous Filipino dishes that are Chinese influenced are pancit, lumpia, and lechon. Some chinese influenced words are susi (key), pinto (door), and kuya (older brother). Some very important influences from the Chinese that as help revolutionize the Philippines is the use of metal and gunpowder. It would then help give Philippines the power to defend itself later on. Probably the most influential group of people would be the Spaniards, which was during the colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards. Even the name of the Philippines was given by the Spaniards, which was named after the king of Spain Philip II. Going along with naming, a lot of surnames of Filipinos are Spanish influenced as well. Religion probably had the biggest impact on the Philippines because the majority of Filipinos are Roman Catholic. Filipinos follow Hispanic traditions when it comes to religion and some festivals are also Spanish influenced. Just like the Chinese and the Indians the Spanish also had an impact on the language of the Philippines. The language of the Philippines is a melting pot in itself because of the different words derived from other languages. Last but not least the Americans also left a mark on the Philippines during the wars. The Jeepney is a popular form of transportation and can be seen all over the Philippines. After World War II there were many military standard jeeps that were left behind in the Philippines. As innovative as Filipinos are they used the jeeps to their advantage and thus created the Jeepney. English is probably the second most spoken language in the Philippines. An English speaker would not have any problem trying to make their way through the Philippines. The Philippines continues to grow in itself with the everlasting influences of the many countries that came to the Philippines.

Age of the Universe Essay

The age of the universe is said to be about 13.75 billion years old. The method used in determining this age would be attempting to find the age of chemical elements, oldest star clusters, as well as white dwarf stars. Scientists also try to find the universes rate of expansion, and behavior of globular clusters, which are spherical collection of stars. In order to find this, scientists can use radioactive decay to determine how old a given mixture of atoms is in rock samples. In order to find the rate of expansion of the universe, The Hubble constant was the basic cosmological model dependent on density and composition of the universe. Some formulas used by The Hubble Constant is that the earth is composed of primary matter and the age of the universe is 2/3(Ho) with Ho being The Hubble constant (1). Another formula is that the earth is said to have very little matter and the age of the universe is 1/ Ho, which is now considered to be more accurate (1). The age of the earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old, about 9.21 years after the universe was formed. The main theory of how the earth was formed is the Big Bang Theory, or a star explosion. Some also call is a supernova. This happens in the universe when the wreckage from an explosion crashed into a cloud of gas, bringing in the ingredients for our solar system. The formation of our sun came first from the collapse of a solar nebula. After about ten to twenty million years after this collapse, dust then clustered to grains, to lumps, to boulders, to planetesimas. Soon it became chunks of rock big enough to have their own gravitational field. So, some plantesimals became the embryonic form of planets in our solar system today. As more asteroids and other planets collided with planet earth, crust began to cool and water began to form and collect on the surface. References Age of the Earth . (2007, July 9). USGS. Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html Age of the Universe . (2012, December 27). The Age of the Elements . Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/age.html How did the Earth form? | The Planets and our solar System. (2013, January 1). UK2Planets | The Planets in our Solar System. Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://www.uk2planets.org.uk/how-did-the-earth-form/ How old is the Universe?. (2012, December 21). Universe 101 . Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_ag Life’s Origins Early earth was not a place for ideal living because it was a fire and hell-like environment. So much so, that scientists even called it Hadean eon, which is an ancient Greek word for down under. It was a place with many volcanoes and some scientists even say there were continental crusts and oceans. Even though it was extremely hot, scientists have found that some bacteria could survive these extreme conditions. According to Watson, by using zircon crystals, they could tell that early earth had a definite wet temperature. The atmosphere consisted of carbon dioxide, water, and volcanic gases. Today, not as many volcanoes exist. No one really knows when life was originated. Asteroids may have hit from time to time, having an effect on life’s atmosphere by causing organic molecules to synthesize. RNA and DNA are the genetic material for all life, and they are made up of long chains of nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus atom s. An important step in the origin of life is the ability of all living things to reproduce. Starting with RNA being able to self-replicate itself, we then evolve into being able to pass genetic material onto offspring, and then natural selection. Miller and Urey built an apparatus filled with water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, but no oxygen. They hypothesized that this was the mixture of the atmosphere of early earth and boiled and condensed the water to keep it circulating. Miller and Urey kept this going for a week and used paper chromatography to be able to show that many amino acids and some other organic molecules were now in the flask. Many other scientists have tested this experiment and found that amino acids, protein molecules, adenine, and other nucleic acid bases were present. Some theories suggest an electric spark could have helped generate these amino acids and sugars in the atmosphere, others suggest the first origins of life could have met on clay. Alexander Graham Cairns- Smith says clay could help the organic compounds become concentrated and organize into patterns similar to genes today. Some scientists theorized that life was brought from somewhere else in space rather than beginning on earth, which is also known as panspermia. In reality, no one is sure of how life began because no one was around to know, but these theories have helped us gain a sense of fascination and knowledge of how life was originated. References 7 Theories on the Origin of Life | LiveScience . (n.d.). Science News – Science Articles and Current Events | LiveScience . Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://www.livescience.com/13363-7-theories-origin-life.html Early Earth Not So Hellish, New Study Suggests | LiveScience . (n.d.). Science News – Science Articles and Current Events | LiveScience . Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://www.livescience.com/241-early-earth-hellish-study-suggests.html How did life originate?. (n.d.). Understanding Evolution. Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/origsoflife_04 Miller and Urey’s Experiment and Molecules of life. (n.d.). Anthropological Study of Workers, Occupational Health, Public Health, Textile Workers. Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://anthropologicalstudy.blogspot.com/2011/03/miller-and-ureys-experiment-and.html The Origin of Life. (n.d.). RCN D.C. Metro | High-Speed Internet, Digital Cable TV & Phone Service Provider. Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AbioticSynthesis.html Ancient Life Radiometric dating is used to date materials based on comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay rate (1). Some different types are radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, and uranium-lead dating. They provide important information about fossil ages and the rate of evolutionary changes. Radiocarbon dating is used to estimate the remains of materials with carbon as of 58000 to 62000 years ago (2). Potassium-argon dating is used to measure the product of radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium into argon. This method works for calculating the age of samples a little over a few thousand years. Uranium-lead dating on the other hand, can estimate the age range of a sample from about 1 million to 4.5 billion years ago (3). This method has two separate decay chains, uranium series, and actinium series, occurring by a series of alpha decays. It is important to have different types of radiometric dating because the earth has b een around for quite some time and a lot of changes has happened in each era, epoch, and eons. There was not as much oxygen dependency in earth’s early atmosphere as there is today. The result of oxygen presence is mainly because of volcanic activity as well as oxygen producing organisms like cyanobacteria, in the oceans of early earth. Cyanobacteria as well as blue-green algae produced their energy anaerobically, releasing oxygen and taking in CO2, and releasing oxygen. Oxygen gained a permanent presence in earth’s atmosphere 2.45 billion years ago for the aerobic organisms that inhabited. When the plates of earth’s crust shift, along with their liquid layers below, this is called plate tectonics. This results in how our continent and land mass appears throughout time. Kenorland, one of the first supercontinents of early earth broke up about 2.6 billion years ago. Another supercontinent called Columbia then formed about 1.8 years ago, and after that Rodinia formed from Columbia’s remains, that broke 550 million years ago. The breaking of these supercontinents caused the earth to have freezing temperatures. Oceans broke out and then Pangea formed and split into two supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwana. Laurasia consists of what is now North America, Asia, Europe, and Gondwana of South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia. These continents in time spread and broke to form what we have today. Mass extinctions are when a species has become wiped out. There have been about five mass extinctions that have occurred so far. The first that occurred was during the Paleozoic era which was the end of the Ordovician. Scientist found that 60% of terrestrial and marine lives had disappeared out of nowhere. The next mass extinction was the late Devonian. The environment no longer provided enough for the survival of these organisms. The third mass extinction was the end of the Permian during the Mesozoic era, where scientist found that 85.5% of all marine species became extinct. The Triassic extinction is the fourth one that happened in the Mesozoic era. Marine invertebrate’s population decreased by 50%. The last mass extinction caused the dinosaurs, as well as plants and other tropical marine life to die out during the Cenozoic era. Global temperature and oceans caused flooding for 40% of all continents. One theory is that because of the quick change of CO2 in the atmosphere, mass extinction occurred. While CO2 in the atmosphere changed, surface layers in the deep oceans began to sink. CO2 increased too rapidly for creatures to adapt in time. Some theories suggest an asteroid caused some mass extinction, hitting the earth. The asteroid might have blocked the sun’s rays or cause the earth’s temperature to rise too high. Periods of intense speciation happens because of mutations. Mutations come from ionizing radiation and other factors. Species that do survive, mutate and cause this speciation. Some researchers say that Earth is hitting the sixth mass extinction because many species are endangered and decreasing population. Researchers also found that major mammals have become more and more rare that they could be extinct in about 30 years. These endangered species, researchers found, may be the result of human activities like habitat destruction and hunting. So, we are b asically in a sixth mass extinction, because human play the main cause. References Biello, D. (2009, August). The Origin of Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere. Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=origin-of-oxygen-in-atmosphere Plastino, W.; Kaihola, L.; Bartolomei, P.; Bella, F. (2001). â€Å"Cosmic Background Reduction In The Radiocarbon Measurement By Scintillation Spectrometry At The Underground Laboratory Of Gran Sasso†. Radiocarbon 43 (2A): 157–161. Parrish, Randall R.; Noble, Stephen R., 2003. Zircon U-Th-Pb Geochronology by Isotope Dilution – Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ID-TIMS). In Zircon (eds. J. Hanchar and P. Hoskin). Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Mineralogical Society of America. 183-213. Wilkins, A. (2011, January). A History of Supercontinents on Planet Earth. io9. Retrieved from: http://io9.com/5744636/a-geological-history-of-supercontinents-on-planet-earth

Sociology of Gambling

Sociology of Gambling Summary of Reading Gambling has for a long time been regarded to as a social vice (Eagley and Chaiken, 1993). The act of gambling is normally regarded to as immoral. This is because it is addictive and in most cases people tend to lose their money or any other valuable item that was used as stake.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Sociology of Gambling specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the more an individual loses, the more he/she feels like playing in order to recover his loss and make a quick profit. In most situations, such individuals tend to end up in even more losses. It is due to this fact that the society has a negative attitude towards gambling. However, in the US, gambling alone bring in more revenue than the sale of movie tickets, theme parks, music concerts and sports events combined (Bernhard and Frey, 2006). Furthermore, 50 states in the United States have legalized several forms of gam bling. This therefore shows that gambling is a part and parcel of our society. The act of gambling has been there in since time immemorial, is with us today and will continue until perpetuity. It is therefore essential for sociologist to understand the positive aspects of gambling and the impact that it has on our lives. To support these arguments, several theories have been presented that try to explain the social aspect of gambling. During the renaissance era, the Catholics used gambling as one of the weaknesses against the Protestants who advocated for it (Greenwald et al, 2002). The catholic stated that it is wrong and evil to get something without working for it. This act was compared to the acts and promises that were made by Satan. In the early 20th century, Devereux explained the gambling theory with the use of the institutional theory. He suggested that gambling had more impact on the society that its individualistic and pathological effects that were well known. At the pre sent moment, sociologists have shifted their views and regard gambling as a form of play (Boyer, 2003). Many countries have lotteries and have legalised gambling which, in many circumstances is controlled by the betting and licensing board. They also state that gambling, as an act is a good leisure activity just like any other form of entertainment. Critique of the arguments presented As stated in the article, gambling is an act that can be used for leisure. The act has been a part of the human culture for many generations now. Due to this fact, it is essential to fully understand it and utilize its benefits to improve the status of individuals and the society (Allport, 2005).Advertising Looking for critical writing on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As stated in the article, gambling has high economic return. This money can be used to fund other projects hence improve the development of the economy. In addition, the act of gambling keeps people occupied. This therefore prevents them from committing social ills. However, it is essential to control the level of gambling. However, for gambling to be socially viable, it should be controlled. This is because the act of gambling is addictive and may lead to adverse conditions on individuals and the society. Application of the arguments Occasional gambling is one of my pass time activities. I have been participating in lotteries and charities ever since I was 12 years old. I do this not only to win but for the fun of it. If properly controlled, participating in charities and lotteries can be fun. From the experience that I have, I think that I believe that gambling can be used to improve the status of the society. References Allport, G.W. (2005). Attitudes. In C.M. Murchison. Handbook of social psychology  Winchester, MA: Clark University Press. Bernhar, B and Frey, J. (2006). The Sociology of Gambling. Brayant, 1(1), 399-404. Boye r, M. (2003). Attentional bias and addictive behaviour: Automaticity in a gambling-specific modified Stroop task. Addiction, 98, 61–70. Eagley, A., and Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Greenwald, A.G., Banaji, M.R., Rudman, L.A., Farnham, S.D., Nosek, B.A., Mellot, D.S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3–25.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Sociology of Gambling specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

How to Edit a Book The Ultimate Free 21-Part Checklist

How to Edit a Book The Ultimate Free 21-Part Checklist How to Edit a Book: Your Ultimate 21-Part Checklist So you want to get published? If you want people to actually read what you’ve written, you must master the art of ferociously self-editing your book. These days, anyone can get anything printed. It doesn’t even have to be good. If you have the money, you can find someone who  will print whatever you submit, as is. That’s not necessarily underhanded. Almost any independent publisher would be happy to offer all the services you’re willing to pay for to make your manuscript as publishable as possible. But you’re the boss. So if you want them to print your unedited book in the exact form you give it to them, they’ll say, â€Å"As you wish. And if they wont, you can easily find someone who will. On the Other Hand Ideally, you’d rather be discovered by a traditional publisher who takes all the risks and pays you an advance against royalties and then royalties on your sales. But the odds of landing a traditional publishing contract are slim. So you must separate yourself from the competition by ensuring your manuscript is the absolute best it can be. Yes, a traditional publisher will have its own editors and proofreaders. But to get that far, your manuscript has to be better than a thousand other submissions. And if you’re self-publishing, the only way to stand out against even more competition is by ferociously editing your own book until its as crisp and clean as possible. There’s little worse than an independently published book that looks like one. So, You Must  Learn How to Edit a Book Whether you’re going to hire an editor, or be assigned one by a traditional publisher, your responsibility is to get your book manuscript to the highest level it can be before you pass it on. Never settle for, â€Å"That’s the best I can do; now fix it for me.† Why? Because sadly, if you attempt the traditional publishing route, could pour your whole life into a manuscript and get just five minutes of an editor’s time before your book is rejected. Sounds unfair, doesn’t it? But as one who has been on both sides of the desk for more than four decades, let me tell you there are reasons for it: Why Publishers Reject Your Manuscript After Reading Just Two Pages Editors can tell within a page or two how much editing would be required to make a manuscript publishable; if it would take a lot of work in every sentence, the labor cost alone would disqualify it. An editor can tell immediately whether a writer understands what it means to grab a reader by the throat and not let go. Have too many characters been introduced too quickly? Does the writer understand point of view? Is the setting and tone interesting? Do we have a sense of where the story is headed, or is there too much throat clearing? (See below for an explanation.) Is the story subtle and evocative, or is it on-the-nose? Yes, a professional editor can determine all this with a quick read of the first two to three pages. If you find yourself saying, â€Å"But they didn’t even get to the good stuff,† then you need to put the good stuff earlier in your manuscript. So today, I want to zero in on tight writing and self-editing. Author Francine Prose says: For any writer, the ability to look at a sentence and see what’s superfluous, what can be altered, revised, expanded, or especially cut, is essential. It’s satisfying to see that sentence shrink, snap into place, and ultimately emerge in a more polished form: clear, economical, sharp. If you’re ready to learn how to edit a book, here’s what you need to do: The  Ultimate Checklist for Editing a  Book Want to keep these 21 self-editing tips handy next time youre writing?  Click here to download the checklist. 1. Develop a thick skin. Or at least to pretend to. It’s not easy. But we writers need to listen to our editors- even if that means listening to ourselves! 2. Avoid throat-clearing. This is a literary term for a story or chapter that finally begins after a page or two of scene setting and background. Get on with it. 3. Choose the normal word over the obtuse. When you’re tempted to show off your vocabulary or a fancy turn of phrase, think reader-first and keep your content king. Don’t intrude. Get out of the way of your message. 4. Omit needless words. A rule that follows its own advice. This should be the hallmark of every writer. 5. Avoid subtle redundancies. â€Å"She nodded her head in agreement.† Those last four words could be deleted. What else would she nod but her head? And when she nods, we need not be told she’s in agreement. â€Å"He clapped his hands.† What else would he clap? â€Å"She shrugged her shoulders.† What else? â€Å"He blinked his eyes.† Same question. â€Å"They heard the sound of a train whistle.† The sound of could be deleted. 6. Avoid the words up and down unless they’re really needed. He rigged [up] the device. She sat [down] on the couch. 7. Usually delete the word that. Use it only for clarity. 8. Give the reader credit. Once youve established something, you dont need to repeat it. Example: â€Å"They walked through the open door and sat down across from each other in chairs.† If they walked in and sat, we can assume the door was open, the direction was down, and- unless told otherwise- there were chairs. So you can write: â€Å"They walked in and sat across from each other.† And avoid quotation marks around words used in another context, as if the reader wouldnt â€Å"get it† otherwise. (Notice how subtly insulting that is.) 9. Avoid telling what’s not happening. â€Å"He didn’t respond.† â€Å"She didn’t say anything.† â€Å"The crowded room never got quiet.† If you don’t say these things happened, we’ll assume they didn’t. 10. Avoid being an adjectival maniac. Good writing is a thing of strong nouns and verbs, not adjectives. Use them sparingly. Novelist and editor Sol Stein says one plus one equals one-half (1+1=1/2), meaning the power of your words is diminished by not picking just the better one. â€Å"He proved a scrappy, active fighter,† is more powerful if you settle on the stronger of those two adjectives. Less is more. Which would you choose? 11. Avoid hedging verbs like smiled slightly, almost laughed, frowned a bit, etc. 12. Avoid the term literally- when you mean figuratively. â€Å"I literally died when I heard that.† R.I.P. â€Å"My eyes literally fell out of my head.† There’s a story I’d like to read. â€Å"I was literally climbing the walls.† You have a future in horror films. 13. Avoid too much stage direction. You dont  need to tell every action of every character in each scene, what they’re doing with each hand, etc. 14. Maintain a single Point of View (POV) for every scene. Failing to do so is one of the most common errors beginning writers make. Amateurs often defend themselves against this criticism by citing classics by famous authors who violated this. Times change. Readers’ tastes change. This is the rule for today, and it’s true of what sells. 15. Avoid clichà ©s. And not just words and phrases. There are also clichà ©d situations, like starting your story with the main character waking to an alarm clock; having a character describe herself while looking in a full-length mirror; having future love interests literally bump into each other upon first meeting, etc. 16. Resist the urge to explain (RUE). Marian was mad. She pounded the table. â€Å"George, you’re going to drive me crazy,† she said, angrily. â€Å"You can do it!† George encouraged said. 17. Show, don’t tell. If Marian pounds the table and chooses those words, we don’t need to be told she’s mad. If George says she can do it, we know he was encouraging. 18. Avoid mannerisms of attribution. People say things; they don’t wheeze, gasp, sigh, laugh, grunt, snort, reply, retort, exclaim, or declare them. John dropped onto the couch. â€Å"I’m beat.† Not: John was exhausted. He dropped onto the couch and exclaimed tiredly, â€Å"I’m beat.† â€Å"I hate you,† Jill said, narrowing her eyes. Not: â€Å"I hate you,† Jill blurted ferociously. Sometimes people whisper or shout or mumble, but let your choice of words imply whether they are grumbling, etc. If it’s important that they sigh or laugh, separate the action from the dialogue: Jim sighed. â€Å"I just can’t take any more,† he said. [Usually you can even drop the attribution he said if you have described his action first. We know who’s speaking.] 19. Specifics add the ring of truth. Yes, even to fiction. 20. Avoid similar character names. In fact, avoid even the same first initials. 21. Avoid mannerisms of punctuation, typestyles, and sizes. â€Å"He†¦was†¦DEAD!† doesn’t make a character any more dramatically expired than â€Å"He was dead.† Your Assignment Apply as many of these book editing hints as possible to the first page of your work-in-progress. Itll make a huge difference. I’ve added a downloadable self-editing checklist below to help you master these 21 tips. The more boxes you can check for your manuscript, the leaner, meaner, and more ready it will be for submission to a publisher. Click here  or below to download it free: What other questions do you have about how to edit a book? Ask me below.

2 Tricks for Remembering Greater Than and Less Than Signs

2 Tricks for Remembering Greater Than and Less Than Signs SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What do those little sideways carat symbols mean? They're inequalities! Inequalities can be difficult to get a handle on, especially because the greater than and less than signs look so similar. But these symbols are very useful, because they help us show the relationship between numbers or equations in a way that doesn't just say that they're equal. In this article, we’ll be talking about what inequalities are, how they’re represented, and how to remember which sign means what. Not knowing what the signs mean may make your math homework feel something like this. What Are Greater Than and Less Than Signs For? Inequalities are math problems that don’t resolve with a clear â€Å"equals† answer- instead, they compare two things, demonstrating the relationship between them rather than showing that one is equal to another. Hence the name; â€Å"inequality† means that two things are not equal. We’re all familiar with the equal sign, â€Å"=† at this point in math. But â€Å"† and â€Å"† are not as common, let alone â€Å"≠¥Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"≠¤Ã¢â‚¬ . Here’s a chart to cover all the inequality symbols: Symbol Meaning Less than- the number on the left is less than the number on the right; 2 3 Greater than- the number on the left is greater than the number on the right; 3 2 ≠¤ Less than or equal to- the number on the left is less than or equal to the number on the right; 2 or 3 ≠¤ 3 ≠¥ Greater than or equal to- the number on the left is greater than or equal to the number on the right; 2 or 3 ≠¥ 2 ≠  Does not equal- the number on the left does not equal the number on the right; 2 ≠  3 Now we'll finally get to talk about why all these photos are of crocodiles. How to Remember Greater Than and Less Than Signs Though the greater than and less than signs have clear meanings, they can be kind of hard to remember. All of them look similar, with the exception of the â€Å"does not equal† sign. So how can you remember them? Alligator Method One of the best ways to memorize the greater than and less than signs is to imagine them as little alligators (or crocodiles), with the numbers on either side representing a number of fish. The alligator always wants to eat the larger number of fish, so whatever number the mouth is open toward is the larger number. The alligator’s mouth is open toward the 4, so even if we weren’t sure that 4 is a bigger number than 3, the sign would tell us. All inequality signs give us the relationship between the first number and the second, beginning with the first number, so 4 3 translates to â€Å"4 is greater than 3.† This also works the other way around. If you see 5 8, imagine the sign as a little alligator mouth about to chomp down on some fish. The mouth is pointed at the 8, which means that 8 is more than 5. The sign always tells us the relationship between the first number and the second, so 5 8 can be translated to â€Å"5 is less than 8.† When you’re working with inequalities, you can even draw little eyes on the symbols to help you remember which means which. These can be tricky to remember, so don’t be afraid to get a little creative until you really have them memorized! Rotateyour less than sign a little bit and you get an L for "less than!" L Method This method is pretty simple- †less than† starts with a letter L, so the symbol that looks most like an L is the one that means â€Å"less than.† looks more like an L than , so means â€Å"less than.† Because doesn’t look like an L, it can’t be â€Å"less than.† Equal Sign Method Once you’ve mastered the Alligator or L method, the other symbols are easy! â€Å"Greater than or equal to† and â€Å"less than or equal to† are just the applicable symbol with half an equal sign under it. For example, 4 or 3 ≠¥ 1 shows us a greater sign over half an equal sign, meaning that 4 or 3 are greater than or equal to 1. It works the other way, too. 1 ≠¤ 2 or 3 shows us a less than sign over half of an equal sign, so we know it means that 1 is less than or equal to 2 or 3. The â€Å"does not equal† sign is even easier! It’s just an equal sign crossed out. If you see an equal sign crossed out, it means that the equal sign doesn’t apply- thus, 2 ≠  3 means that 2 does not equal 3. Keep these things in mind and you'll look this happy about working with inequalities. Key Tips For Working With Inequalities Inequalities are tricky- we’re used to having a clear and concrete answer for math problems, butinequalities don't always give us that. When you're working with inequalities, keep these things in mind to help ease you through the process. Inequalities are All About Relationships Keep in mind as you’re working on inequalities that they’re typically asking you to solve for a relationship or to identify which symbol is appropriate rather than asking you to solve for a single number. You don’t need to end up with two numbers on either side of an equal sign to be right- the answer just needs to be true. Isolate Your Variables When you’re working with inequalities with variables, it’s important to remember that, in general, you’ll be trying to isolate the variable to one side or the other. Focus on condensing numbers and canceling things out when you can, always with the goal of getting the variable alone on either side of the equation. Negative Numbers Change the Greater Than or Less Than Sign Don’t forget that performing certain actions will flip the sign. When you multiply or divide by a negative number, you need to flip the â€Å"greater than† or â€Å"less than† sign along with it. Don't Multiply or Divide by a Variable- Most of the Time Unless you know for certain that a variable will always be positive or always be negative, don’t multiply or divide an inequality by a variable. What’s Next? Inequalities aren't the only tricky part of math- rational numbers can also be confusing! This guide will help walk you through what a rational number is and what they look like. Ever wondered how many zeroes are in big numbers? How many zeroes are there in a billion? How about a trillion? Need to get some practice in? These 5th-grade math games can help you hone your skills! Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Melissa Brinks About the Author Melissa Brinks graduated from the University of Washington in 2014 with a Bachelor's in English with a creative writing emphasis. She has spent several years tutoring K-12 students in many subjects, including in SAT prep, to help them prepare for their college education. 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Empirical research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Empirical - Research Paper Example The conclusion of the study is that people with strong worldviews that they implement in their everyday lives often have more reasons to live and often choose life in the long run. A study was undergone to detect patterns and relationships between culture worldview, â€Å"reasons for living,† and suicide resilience in African Americans and European Americans, as each group adheres to separate worldviews that may or may not affect suicidal factors. While there are other factors to determine the risk of suicide in individuals and cultures as a whole, the concept of â€Å"reasons for living† is an alternative index for suicide risk. The belief is that those ethnic groups with more reasons for living tend to be more resilient to suicide as well as suicidal symptoms, such as depression, hopelessness, or suicide attempts. Furthermore, those with a stronger cultural worldviews usually choose life; aspects such as religious and spiritual beliefs, spiritual immortality, and values play a role in determining the strength of one’s cultural worldview, and thus the strength of their will to live. The variables looked at in the study encompassed a variety of beliefs and dimensions that dealt a lot with cultural perception of the world, life, and death. For example, people that believe in an afterlife would be more willing to engage in a suicidal act. Someone who has grown up in a religious home with strict views on suicide would be less likely to take their life. This study aimed to determine just how effective these various worldviews really were in suicidal behavior and resilience Various questionnaires were distributed to the sample groups; the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFLI) consisted of items that proposed reasons for someone not to kill themselves if they were suicidal; the Worldview Analysis Scale (WAS) measured various culture dimensions of worldview with a range between common European and African worldviews; the Beck Hopeless Scale (BHS)

Critical Analysis of the Film Good Will Hunting Essay

Critical Analysis of the Film Good Will Hunting - Essay Example Luckily, mathematics has been spared the symbolism of forbidden knowledge, troubled with ethical dilemmas (Frankenstein, Faust, Rappacini). Quite on the contrary, the film Good Will Hunting strikes a balance, and its mathematicians are portrayed as more multifaceted than those in the works referred to above. Good Will Hunting is in effect not about mathematics. It is about the touching story of a young man's struggling to outdo his Dickensian childhood, to find his place in the world, and to attain closeness with others. The main character, Will (the title is a play on his name), is a tough and supernaturally gifted orphan from Boston's South Side. He works as a janitor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and cannot resist showing anonymously his solutions to (apparently) perplexing mathematical problems. The identity of the solver is revealed just about the time that Will (Matt Damon) is arraigned for taking part in a street brawl. His following court-ordered supervision by a m athematics professor and Fields Medallist Professor Lambeau, (played by Stellan Skarsgard) includes psychological counselling. This sets the plot in motion. The way Will feels about himself, the woman he courts, about his remarkable gift and his background are looked into detail through an interaction with his psychologist (portrayed by Robin Williams) whose a background also turns out to be similar. So what is the role of mathematics in all this? Alfred Hitchcock's metaphor of the "McGuffin" rings in the head: an object or idea that drives the plot and with which everyone in the film, but not the audience, is preoccupied. In films by Hitchcock, the McGuffin might be a hidden treasure, or someone's identity. This film's McGuffins are Will's talent and the mathematics problems the he has a knack of solving so easily. It is quite possible that Will could have been gifted in physics, biology, in languages and faced similar issues in his life. Indeed, his intellect is drawn larger than life, so that he can learn organic chemistry, talk about economics, and even defend himself in court, with an ability to cite precedents. So why mathematics? One of the reasons is that mathematics is alleged to be vague that few can do it. In fact, this is amongst the few remarks about mathematics that this film makes, with which a mathematical audience will strongly disagree. Under the opening credits, the first frames of the film are of a mathematical text out of focus and blurred, as if seen by a general reader who cannot understand it. The mathematics referred to later on ranges from simple graph theory, through basic linear algebra to Parseval's theorem (mispronounced in the film) and to what seems like some deeper graph theoretical results. Mathematics mentioned persistently, but in no scene is it presented articulately. Will's gift is valuable, possibly because it is so rare. Mathematics highlights the major differences between Will and the academics. Will is a tough street y oungster. His gift is well-regarded but not envied by his friends. Had his gift been in rock music or sports, the plot could not have turned on the choice Will has to make between his background and his destiny. The culture of mathematics doesn’t fit well with that of blue-collar South Boston. And it is not predominantly "our fault". Professor Lambeau goes to great lenghths to keep Will out of jail, to get him a decent job which

The Ethics of Mountaintop Removal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Ethics of Mountaintop Removal - Essay Example Moreover, mountaintop removal is associated with the destruction of the physical environment for the surrounding communities which minimizes on the overall good done to the neighboring communities. Human beings generally love the aesthetic view of their surroundings which makes them feel happy about what they see around (Camacho, 2010). Mountaintop removal while mining coal, however, destroys this aesthetic view by deforestation and surface destruction among other scenery destructive activities (Mcgarvey & Johnston, 2013). In fact, deforestation in itself is responsible not only for changing the climatic conditions of an area but also affects the freshness of air that the inhabitants of the neighboring communities breathe (Zullig, M.S.P.H & Hendryx, 2011). This is with regard to the fact that vegetation is responsible for facilitating the gaseous exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide. Such an interference with the natural sceneries is, therefore, an undesirable activity which re mains to be a total interference to the moral and ethical standards of inhabitants of the neighboring community. Without regulation of the mining activities of companies involved in the mining of coal, it may be impossible to maximize on the principles of utilitarianism which entails creating more â€Å"good† to the community while reducing the bad effects of the mining activities in the neighborhood.The coal industries can be considered to be more consumptive than preservative in their mining processes.

Economics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Economics - Research Paper Example China has become the fastest growing region for exports for the United States. China is indirectly contributing positively to the job creation in America. More exports leads to more work that is required by the labor force of America. The majority of the exports are derived from the states of California, Texas and Washington. These states are selling a lot of microchips, computer components and aircrafts. Other products that are being exported to China include grain, chemical, and transportation equipment. Part of the president’s Obama economic plan included doubling US exports by 2014. The export growth in China may allow that campaign promise to become truth. China has become the second largest importer in the world behind the United States. The United States imports $1.9 trillion compared to China’s $1.4 trillion (Barboza). Despite China’s efforts to catch the US in the amount of imports its people consume the disparity in terms of per capita consumption are s till quite large. The exports of crops are growing to China due to the lack of water and arable land. The overpopulation in China is another negative variable that is affecting the distribution of wealth in China. China has four times the population of the United States despite China being the size of Texas. Recyclable materials and paper are items that China is importing a lot. Last year New York sold over a billion dollars worth of waste and scrap to China. The main thesis of the author is that as Chinese is growing so is the nation’s demand for American made products. I agree with the author’s theory because the author showed empirical evidence that showed a clear consumption pattern. During the last decade China has been achieving double figure growth in its import to the US. Last year US exports to China grew by 32% in comparison with the previous year. There are many factors that are causing this phenomenon. The cultural impact of the American culture that is wid ely spread throughout the world with the assistance of the media has created a more consumerism society in China. China has slowly liberated itself from its one dimensional perspective concerning the liberties of its people. The Chinese people idolized the American culture which is one the reasons for the increase in exports to China. Another reason for this occurrence is the fact the income capacity of the Chinese has gone up. There is a growing middle class of Chinese consumers that are eager to spend their hard earning money. The infrastructure of China is another of the reasons why China depends on the US for crops. China cannot create sufficient food to feed its people. The one child law created in 1979 was a move that slowed down the human growth in China, but the population is still the largest in the world. China has a need for construction products such as Iron. Old junk cars are perfect raw material of iron that is in high demand in China. An increase in the amount of impo rted goods from the US gives China bargaining power in its economic negotiations since now the US is depending more on the money businesses are making by exporting to China. China has a lot to gain by becoming a bigger importer of the US. Improving its international relations with the US is beneficial for both parties. It is possible in the future that these two countries might become allies and create a free trade agreement between the two nations. This scenario is not impossible because nobody could have imagined that US

CREBP Mutation Schematic Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

CREBP Mutation Schematic - Lab Report Example The kinase pathways, in essence, induce phosphorylation of a single residue SER133 (Salks Institute, Undated) on CREB to activate it. There is evidence of four such kinase pathways - cAMP-dependent protein kinase, multiple mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), ribosome S6 kinase and - and calmodulin-dependent kinases (CAMKs) (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004). The phosphorylated CREB attracts coactivator CREB binding protein (CBP or CREBBP ) which allows the activated phosphorylated CREB to bind to cAMP-responsive element (CRE) sequences on DNA to initiate gene expression (Thiel, G., et al, 2005). CBP coactivator work is often copied by its paralog p300, a highly related transcriptional coactivator protein targeted by the adenoviral oncoprotein E1A (Brody, T.B., 1996). This is still not a very clear process as much has yet to be known about the mechanism by which CBP binds to the phosphorylated CREB and subsequently promotes gene transcription. For gene transcription to take place a polymerase complex must be recruited, it must then be subsequently isomerized and cleared to transcribe the target gene (Kim, J., et al, 2000). There is evidence that the phsophorylated CREB, after binding with CBP, also recruits a RNA(2) polymerase complex to initiate transcription on CRE elements on target genes in various cells and tissues (Kim, J., et al, 2000). There is much that has been cleared in this direction by the research efforts of Kim et al, 2000, yet more has to be done before any definite conclusions can be reached. The paper now focuses on the molecular and genetic identity of CBP so that the next section on possible mutations on the protein can be better understood. Nevertheless, it is noted here that CREB activity is triggered off by diverse factors such as growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters, ion fluxes and stress signals (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004), all of which help recruit the protein. CBP action is initiated through heterodimerization of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) domains (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004). Its action via gene transcription is also very diverse and the number of genes it helps express is also >100. Thus, mutations in CREBBP or CREB binding protein have numerous implications.The CREB Binding Protein (CBP or CREBBP) CBP is encoded in DNA sequences on human chromosome 16 at 16p13.3 (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). Gene location is from GC16M003716 to GC16M003870. The sequence starts at 3,716,568 bp from p terminal and ends at 3,870,723 bp from p terminal making up a sequence of size 154,155 bases with a minus strand orientation (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). The human CBP is made up of 2442 amino acid sequences and is 265337 Daltons in molecular weight (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). A rough domain count of the protein sequences is available for isoform 'a'. These are as per Table 1 and Diagram 1, Appendix, sourced from Giles et al, 1997, Fig. 3 and 4 respectively. As can be observed from both the table and the diagram, there are 11 distinct domains. This is not exhaustive as there are many regions on the total CREBBP (human) DNA sequence that have not been mapped according to function

Case Study 02242 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Case Study 02242 - Essay Example The project with the highest cumulative of cash flows should be chosen. In this case, Alpha is this project. The accounting rate of return also tells us the project that will have more or less profits at the end of the period. The project that has less ARR will have less profits while the project with more ARR will have more profits. From the calculations, Alpha has the highest ARR, therefore, it will yield the highest profits. It should therefore be preferred. Lastly, by looking at the payback period, we need to choose the project with the shortest period. Payback period indicates the time that the project will take before it repays its initial cost of initiation. The project that meets this condition earlier is more preferred as it enables the owners to begin enjoying the profits earlier. Alpha has the shortest period, hence it should be chosen. It is a method of evaluating investment by taking the average accounting operating profit that the investment can possibly make and dividing with the average investment made over the life of the project. It expresses this as a percentage. This method has a weakness of not being keen on time observation as it does not consider when revenue or losses are made (Elmmendor, 1993). It also does pay much attention to accounting profit instead of the absolute profit realized from a particular project. The bigger the value or ARR, the better the choice for any competing projects subject to these projects not exceeding the projected time, hence ignoring time value of money The method is easy to manipulate but it ignores uncertainty of accounting profits. However, it does have the advantage of relating profit to the amount of investment made as well as giving its answers in terms of percentages which is a preference of some managers. Some of the advantages for using this method is the fact tha t it is easy to use when carrying out comparison on projects. It also has a

CREBP Mutation Schematic Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

CREBP Mutation Schematic - Lab Report Example The kinase pathways, in essence, induce phosphorylation of a single residue SER133 (Salks Institute, Undated) on CREB to activate it. There is evidence of four such kinase pathways - cAMP-dependent protein kinase, multiple mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), ribosome S6 kinase and - and calmodulin-dependent kinases (CAMKs) (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004). The phosphorylated CREB attracts coactivator CREB binding protein (CBP or CREBBP ) which allows the activated phosphorylated CREB to bind to cAMP-responsive element (CRE) sequences on DNA to initiate gene expression (Thiel, G., et al, 2005). CBP coactivator work is often copied by its paralog p300, a highly related transcriptional coactivator protein targeted by the adenoviral oncoprotein E1A (Brody, T.B., 1996). This is still not a very clear process as much has yet to be known about the mechanism by which CBP binds to the phosphorylated CREB and subsequently promotes gene transcription. For gene transcription to take place a polymerase complex must be recruited, it must then be subsequently isomerized and cleared to transcribe the target gene (Kim, J., et al, 2000). There is evidence that the phsophorylated CREB, after binding with CBP, also recruits a RNA(2) polymerase complex to initiate transcription on CRE elements on target genes in various cells and tissues (Kim, J., et al, 2000). There is much that has been cleared in this direction by the research efforts of Kim et al, 2000, yet more has to be done before any definite conclusions can be reached. The paper now focuses on the molecular and genetic identity of CBP so that the next section on possible mutations on the protein can be better understood. Nevertheless, it is noted here that CREB activity is triggered off by diverse factors such as growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters, ion fluxes and stress signals (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004), all of which help recruit the protein. CBP action is initiated through heterodimerization of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) domains (Euskirchen, G., et al, 2004). Its action via gene transcription is also very diverse and the number of genes it helps express is also >100. Thus, mutations in CREBBP or CREB binding protein have numerous implications.The CREB Binding Protein (CBP or CREBBP) CBP is encoded in DNA sequences on human chromosome 16 at 16p13.3 (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). Gene location is from GC16M003716 to GC16M003870. The sequence starts at 3,716,568 bp from p terminal and ends at 3,870,723 bp from p terminal making up a sequence of size 154,155 bases with a minus strand orientation (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). The human CBP is made up of 2442 amino acid sequences and is 265337 Daltons in molecular weight (CREBBP, GeneCard, 2006). A rough domain count of the protein sequences is available for isoform 'a'. These are as per Table 1 and Diagram 1, Appendix, sourced from Giles et al, 1997, Fig. 3 and 4 respectively. As can be observed from both the table and the diagram, there are 11 distinct domains. This is not exhaustive as there are many regions on the total CREBBP (human) DNA sequence that have not been mapped according to function

Summary Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary - Assignment Example The authors work with Elizabeth Brainerd is based on two hypotheses. Firstly, competitive industries do not have discrimination, so in case of an exogenous shock (increased trade) the effect of discrimination is negligible. Secondly, in less competitive industries, scope of discrimination is more, so in case of the same exogenous shock narrowing the gender wage gap would be considerable. Since theoretically, the wage differential in competitive industries is nil, by providing for increased trade, the authors could compute the gender wage gap in concentrated industries. The survey covering the period 1977-94 used data from Current Population Survey. The population comprised of individuals aged 18 to 64 and working as full time. First log wage of all individuals was regressed on education, age, agesqaured and nonwhite dummy variable. Then the residual gender wage gap was computed from difference in average residual wages for male and female at industry level. The industry level results were matched to trade level results, with trade measured as import shares. The findings show that an increase in import share leads to reduction in gender wage gap in concentrated industries. However overall increase in trade have a negative impact on relative wages of women. These results can also be factored on decline in unionization and not discrimination impact.

Outcome of Revolt Essay Example for Free

Outcome of Revolt Essay Mahatma Gandhi had played the most important role in the freedom struggle ofIndia through his basic principle of truth, non violence and Satyagraha. He entered in the political scenario in 1916 after returning from a successful struggle against discrimination faced by black people in South Africa. In India through chain of movement for peasants and labourers in Champaren, Ahemdabad and Kheda he entered the Indian scene. Then he reached the zenith of political scenario with his Non-Cooperation movement in support of Khilafat movement and against Jallianwala Bagh massacre by Dyer of people who were gathered for meeting against the Rowllat act. His next big movement was Civil Obedience and in 1942 he planned the Quit Indiamovement, the movement led by common mass. After that final blow British freedIndia on 15 Aug 1947.Though people think that Mahatma Gandhi played normal role in freedom struggle of India but what Mahatma Gandhi did it was not possible by anybody. He was the first leader who under stand the role of masses and took steps to join it with the national movement. Before him nobody understands this fact that by merely movements by educated people or by violent activities British could not be uprooted. He was the man who awakened the real power the common man and with weapon of non-violence, truth and Satyagraha they together demoralized British government and forced her to leave.Another role he played as reformer he tried to uplift the status of untouchables, tried to unite Hindus and Muslims and give proper respect to women and their power.Mahatma Gandhi had played the most important role in the freedom struggle of India through his basic principle of truth, non violence and Satyagraha. He entered in the political scenario in 1916 after returning from a successful struggle against discrimination faced by black people in South Africa. In India through chain of movement for peasants and labourers in Champaren, Ahemdabad and Kheda he entered the Indian scene. Then he reached the zenith of political scenario with his Non-Cooperation movement in s upport of Khilafat movement and against Jallianwala Bagh massacre by Dyer of people who were gathered for meeting against the Rowllat act. His next big movement was Civil Obedience and in 1942 he planned the Quit India movement, the movement led by common mass. After that final blow British freed India on 15 Aug 1947. Though people think that Mahatma Gandhi played normal role in freedom struggle of India but what Mahatma Gandhi did it was not possible by anybody. He was the first leader who under stand the role of masses and took steps to join it with the national movement. Before him nobody understands this fact that by merely movements by educated people or by violent activities British could not be uprooted. He was the man who awakened the real power the common man and with weapon of non-violence, truth and Satyagraha they together demoralized British government and forced her to leave. Another role he played as reformer he tried to uplift the status of untouchables, tried to unite Hindus and Muslims and give proper respect to women and their power. He was the maker of Modern India. After the freedom struggle got even more intense and passionate. Entire India was united together in the movement for freedom. Everyone contributed what they could in the freedom struggle. The cry of Purna Swaraj or complete independence was raised. After much sacrifices and efforts, India gained its independence on the 15th August, 1947.Comparision:- South African former President Mr. Nelson Mandela’s First inspiration was Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation in India. The life and works of two leaders is almost similar and they are icon of these two nations. The inside stories of their greatness give them an iconic status in all over the world.Mahatma Gandhi fought to establish the truth in a non-violence manner Mr. Nelson Mandela spent more the 27 year in Jail to establish the power of democracy in South Africa. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1993 for his contribution in the peace process in South Africa. The names Mandela and Gandhi are often seen together because of their similar leadership style.They both achieved independence for their countries through non-violent means. Mandela used non-violent strategies to achieve his political aims, similar to Gandhi.Mandela shared Gandhi’s vision of common humanity transcending racial and cultural to have derived strategies of non-constitutional protest.Mandela displayed such amazing leadership when he was co-awarded India’s Gandhi Peace Prize Both Gandhi and Mandela spent time in the same prison in Johannesburg, Fort prison.They had a broad commitment to non-constitutional action in the name of higher justice. The one was a man who fought against oppression with patience, self sacrifice, and good will for his enemies. The other was a man who fought against oppression with, violence, propaganda, and enmity cloaked in love towards his enemies. Both achieved there desired ends. The one went to his grave holding to his proclaimed ideals the other has tried to hide his true ideals as far as possible but time has revealed his true goals. ome people call Nelson Mandela, the greatest living Gandhian! Their basic thinking is that Mandela is a follower of Gandhi – thus establishing the superiority of Gandhi. But is it really so? Let’s analyse a little deeper.There are many parallels between the freedom struggle in India and the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. India was occupied by the British, and South Africa was being ruled by the people from another community of European descent – the Afrikaner. The struggle for freedom in India was led by the Indian National Congress (INC), and the struggle against apartheid in South Africa was spearheaded by the African National Congress (ANC). In both the countries, the ruling powers used very similar tactics to rule over the native people – the main s trategy being ‘Divide and Rule’: In India the British activated the Muslims to counter the INC, and in South Africa the White regime financed and armed the Zulus to kill ANC activists. The Muslim League (ML) was effectively led by a person, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who for a long time was also a member of the INC. The Zulu political outfit, Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), was led by, Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi, who was also at one time a member of ANC. The INC stood for all Indians irrespective of their religion, caste or creed. So did the ANC. Reacting to the ML projecting a separate political identity for the Muslims of India, a smaller third native force, RSS, with Hindu nationalist agenda appeared in India. In South Africa also a third political party, Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) emerged declaring that Blacks are the real Africans – again with not much popular support. In both the countries, the main native oppositional parties demanded separate homelands for their ethnic groups, in case of freedom from the imperialist powers. While the ML demanded Pakistan for the Muslims of India in the North-Western part of the country, the IFP demanded for an autonomous a nd sovereign Zulu king, (King Goodwill Zwelethini kaBhekuzulu), as head of state – in effect Zulu Land in the KwaZulu territory. In its struggle, the INC was led by Mahatma Gandhi, whom the country called Bapu, later the Father of the Nation. In South Africa, the ANC was led by Nelson Mandela, known as Madiba, a fatherly figure for all South Africans. Enormous parallels in both the countries! However, the difference is that while Gandhi could not stop the bifurcation of the country, Mandela did. As Jinnah gave a call for Direct Action Day in 1946 and the Hindu-Muslim riots broke out, Chief Buthelezi called on his followers to attack and kill ANC workers and other Blacks. In fact, riding on the back of the Zulu Land Movement, there was also the demand for Volkstaat, or rather Boerestaat, floated by the extremist White supremacist outfit called Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement, led by Eugà ¨ne Ney Terre’Blanche. The demands for Zulu Land and Volkstaat reinforced each other. Like the people of India, the natives of South Africa went through a period of extensive bloodshed – the armed followers of Chief Buthelezi attacked Black townships and a lot of innocent Black people lost their lives! Nelson Mandela, the embodiment of South Africa, took all the pain on his chest, but did not surrender to the separatist agenda of the IFP! Though some concessions were made and very watered down demands of the IFP were accepted, a separate ‘Zulu Land’ did not materialise, nor did Volkstaat! South Africa was saved from getting divided into pieces. Along with the independence of India came the Partition. However, South Africa came out of apartheid as a wholesome nation. In short, where Gandhi failed, Mandela succeeded! The question is what exactly made this difference. The answer may lie in the strategies the two leaders adopted in their political struggle. The main difference has been in their attitude towards non-violence. Unlike Gandhi, Mandela did approve of the use of violence against what he considered a stronger and brutal enemy. In the wake of the Sharpeville massacre on 21 March 1960, South Africa’s equivalent of India’s Jalianwala Bagh massacre, wherein 69 PAC protesters were killed and 180 injured in the police firing, the ANC, also banned along with the PAC after the incident, concluded that the Gandhian methods of non-violence were not suitable against the apartheid system. It was decided that violent tactics had to be used, which primarily involved targeting and sabotaging the government’s resources, though, of course, with an initial wish to minimise the bloodshed of civilians.In 1961, the ANC formed a military wing called Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning â€Å"Spear of the Nation†, with Mandela as its first leader. Mandela coordinated a sabotage campaign against military and government targets, and made plans for a possible guerrilla war if sabotage failed to en d apartheid. The MK launched guerrilla attacks against government installations on 16 December 1961. Mandela was arrested in 1962 and, along with many other ANC and MK leaders, was convicted of sabotage at the Rivonia Trial in 1964. At the trial, Mandela admitted to the acts of sabotage. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island. The ANC/MK carried out numerous bombings of military, industrial, civilian and infrastructural sites in the 1970s and 1980s as well. The tactics were initially geared solely towards sabotage, but eventually expanded to include urban guerrilla warfare, which included human targets. One such attack was the Church Street bombing on 20 May 1983, killing 19 people. The ANC even used necklacing (where a tyre would be put around one’s neck, gasoline poured on it and set alight) to assassinate collaborators, such as black policemen and informers. In these attacks, scores of people were killed and hundreds injured. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found several instances of torture and executions at ANC detention camps, particularly in the period of 1979-1989. The ANC was declared a terrorist organization, not just by the South African government, but by most of the Western countries including the US and UK. Even Archbishop Desmond Tutu criticized the ANC for its willingness to resort to violence, arguing that non-violent resistance, such as civil disobedience, was more productive. But the use of violent tactics in 1961 was no aberration for Mandela. His belief that the non-violent means of Gandhi could achieve nothing is crystal clear from the speech Mandela gave on 11 February 1990 after his release from Victor Verster Prison in Paarl, in which he said: â€Å"Our resort to the armed struggle in 1960 with the formation of the military wing of the ANC (Umkhonto we Sizwe) was a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid. The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue. We express the hope that a climate conducive to a negotiated settlement would be created soon, so that there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle.† So, there was no question that Mandela would agree with those who criticised the use of violence by the ANC activists, wherein even civilians were killed. Though he declared his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country’s white minority, through the above-mentioned speech Mandela put his stamp of approval on the ANC’s three decade long armed struggle and also made it clear that it wasn’t over yet. The MK suspended its operations only on 01 August 1990 in preparation for the dismantling of apartheid. The total number of people killed or injured in the 30 years of the MK’s campaigns is not known exactly, but the ANC leadership saw the MK as the armed component of a strategy of â €Å"people’s war†. Mandela explains the move to embark on an armed struggle as a last resort, when increasing repression and violence from the state convinced him that many years of non-violent protest against apartheid had achieved nothing and could not succeed. So, if Mandela believed that non-violent methods could not succeed in South Africa, how did they succeed in India? Or did they really? The INC passed Poorna Swarajya (Complete Independence) resolution at its Lahore conference in December 1929, and it authorized the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was also decided to observe 26 January 1930 as the Poorna Swarajya Diwas. However, despite the intermittent civil disobedience movements launched by Gandhi, nothing happened for more than a decade. In fact, the INC participated in the British controlled elections in February 1937 and took over the administration in various provinces, obviously implying that British rule would continue. Actually, the INC never believed that it had the strength or a strategy to achieve Poorna Swarajya. Immediately after observing Poorna Swarajya Diwas, Gandhi undertook Dandi March from 12 March to 06 April 1930 in protest against the Government tax on salt. Why was there a diversion towards a much smaller issue? Because Gandhi and his followers knew that through their civil disobedience movements they could only get some laws repealed, but not complete independence. Again, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931, the acceptance of the Government of India Act 1935 in the main, and then the participation in the 1937 elections only show that Poorna Swarajya was just a dream rather than a political goal for the INC. The INC demanded complete freedom from the British Raj in earnest only with the launch of the Quit India Movement in August 1942, after the failed talks with the Cripps Mission in March 1942 who offered a limited dominion status for India in exchange for total cooperation from the INC during the war with Nazi Germany. However, as regards the Quit India Movement, firstly it petered out by 1943, and secondly it did become violent. Given the Chauri Chaura example, Gandhi was ideologically bound to withdraw it, had he not been in jail. So, again it would have come to nothing. And, even after running its full course, according to the former British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, the Quit India Movement had minimal impact. In Atlee’s view, the most important reason behind the British decision to leave India was the Indian National Army (INA) activities of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.As quoted by Dhananjaya Bhat in his article ‘RIN mutiny gave a jolt to the British’ an extract from a letter written by PV Chakraborty, former Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court, on 30 March 1976, reads thus. When I was acting as Governor of West Bengal in 1956, Clement Attlee, who as the British Prime Minister in post war years was responsible for India’s freedom, visited India and stayed in Raj Bhavan Calcutta for two days. I put it straight to him like this: ‘The Quit India Movement of Gandhi practically died out long before 1947 and there was nothing in the Indian situation at that time which made it necessary for the British to leave India in a hurry. Why then did they do so?’ In reply Attlee cited several reasons, the most important of which were the INA activities of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, which weakened the very foundation of the British Empire in India, and the RIN Mutiny which made the British realise that the Indian armed forces could no longer be trusted to prop up the British. When asked about the extent to which the British decision to quit India was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s 1942 movement, Attlee’s lips widened in smile of disdai n and he uttered, slowly, ‘Minimal’. (The Tribune, 12 February 2006, Spectrum Supplement). And, Attlee’s assessment is supported by historical facts. After the war, the stories of the Azad Hind Movement (Provisional Government of Free India in exile) and its army (the INA), that came into the public limelight during the trials of the INA soldiers in 1945, known as the Red Fort Trials, were seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings in India, the British Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story. However, the stories of the trials filtered through. The British watched with alarm that General Shah Nawaz Khan, Colonel Prem Sehgal and Colonel Gurbux Singh Dhillon, defended by Jawaharlal Nehru himself at the trials, were perceived by the Indian public as â€Å"the greatest among patriots† (Michael Edwardes, The Last Years of British India, 1964). Newspapers reported the summary execution of some of the INA soldiers. During and after the trials, mutinies broke out in the British Indian Armed forces, most notably in the Royal Ind ian Navy in February 1946, which found huge public support throughout India, from Karachi to Bombay and from Vizag to Calcutta, reminiscent of the scenario of the Rebellion of 1857 where the masses joined the mutineer soldiers in their march from Meerut to Delhi – the only difference being, it was on a much larger scale this time. Not just Attlee, many historians have argued that it was the INA and the mutinies it inspired among the British Indian Armed forces that shattered the spirit and will of the British Raj to continue ruling India. In addition, the British people and the British Army seemed unwilling to back a policy of repression in India and other parts of the Empire even as their own country lay shattered by the war’s ravages. So, it’s nothing else but a myth that India got its freedom through the Gandhian non-violent protests and civil disobedience movements. No doubt, civil disobedience movements won some concessions from the British rulers, and forced them to repeal or modify some of the laws. But an imperialist power, that had never left any of its other colonies – whether Ireland or America – without being pushed out through armed struggle, would not have walked away from ‘the Jewel in the Crown’ just because they faced peaceful protests. It was the threat of mass revolts, army rebellions and revolutionary violence becoming real behind the faà §ade of Gandhi’s non-violent protests that broke the back of the British Rule in India. Had Britain not been weakened by the Second World War, and had the INA not formed and fought against the British, it is very doubtful that India would have got its independence even in 1947.On the other hand, many historians argue that India would have won its freedom right in 1922, as the imperialist British rulers were jolted to the core by the Non-Cooperation Movement at the time and were on the verge of giving in. But Gandhi withdrew the Movement because of the Chauri Chaura incident wherein a mob set fire to a police station. Was that decision in the interest of the national freedom? Many scholars don’t think so. Observers believe that the incident, while regrettable, did not merit the can cellation of a nation’s demand for political freedom. But to Gandhi, the image of greatness was more important than the freedom of India!!The time has come to think whether Gandhi was extreme in his belief in non-violence, and therefore, a failure? Whether the freedom movement was elevated and became more effective by adopting Gandhi’s non-violent approach, or did that strategy stall the struggle for independence? Being what he was, was Gandhi capable of running state-craft that entails use of violence? In South Africa’s first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili. Could one imagine Gandhi ordering troops into Bangladesh, Sri Lanka or Kashmir – even at the invitation of the local government! The thing to ponder over is whether the belief in a judicious use of violence made Mandela a more balanced statesman, and therefore more successful? Whether Gandhi, a great soul – Maha Atma, as Indians call him – was too angelic to be a politician? Whether Gandhi’s strategy best suited India’s cause, or was the country under his spell and suffered? Nelson Mandella:- Peace, democracy and freedom for all South Africans. A united South Africa, he spent 27 years in jail he was inspired by Mahatama Gandhi, at first he used protest methods like boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience, noncooperation and mass rallies then after learning about gandhi he too clung firmly to the principles of non-violence for more than ten years and followed in the foot steps of Mahatma Gandhi. Nelson Mandela is a great person who has never thought about Indias freedom and never spent a single penny for Indians. Mahatma Gandhi spent several yeas in Durban (South Africa) for the welfare of the Africans. Mahatma Gandhi was very much dislike for clothes, Nelson Mandela has never been brave to walk naked. Mandela married thrice, and Mahatma Gandhi married only once. Mandela was oldest elected President of South Africa and Gandhi has never been elected nor participated in any election was not interested to be famous., Mandela died twice or more, ( once in January 2001 CNN announced and published obituary,) but still alive in his Sweet 93.But Gandhi died only once 30th January 1948, before India become Republic. Mandela is 29 years younger to Gandhi and Gandhi is 29 years elder to Mandela.

Diseases :: essays papers

Diseases Diseases are any harmful change that interferes with the normal appearance, structure, or function of the body or any of its parts. Since time immemorial, disease has played a role in the history of societies. It has affected and has been affected by economic conditions, wars, and natural disasters. An epidemic of influenza that swept the globe in 1918 killed between 20 million and 40 million people. Within a few months, more than 500,000 Americans died^more than were killed during World War I (1914-1918), World War II (1939-1945), the Korean War (1950-1953), and the Vietnam War (1959-1975) combined. Diseases have diverse causes, which can be classified into two broad groups: communicable and noncommunicable. Communicable diseases can spread from one person to another and are caused by microscopic organisms that invade the body. Noncommunicable diseases are not communicated from person to person and do not have, or are not known to involve, infectious agents. Some diseases, such as the common cold, and come on suddenly and last for no more than a few weeks. Other diseases, such as arthritis, are chronic, consistent for months or years, or reoccur frequently. Every disease has certain characteristic effects on the body. Some of these effects, include fever, inflammation, pain, fatigue, dizziness, nausea, and rashes, are evident to the patient. These symptoms offer important clues that help doctors and other health care professionals make a diagnosis. Many times, the symptoms point to several possible disorders. In those cases, doctors rely on medical tests, such as blood examinations and X rays, to confirm the diagnosis. Communicable diseases are caused by microscopic organisms. Physicians refer to these disease-causing organisms as pathogens. Pathogens that infect humans include a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and parasitic worms. Also, it has been theorized that some proteins called prions may cause infectious diseases. Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms at least 1 micron long. Some bacteria species are harmless to humans, many are beneficial. But some are pathogens, including those that cause cholera, diphtheria, leprosy, plague, pneumonia, strep throat, tetanus, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever. The bacteria that are harmless and live in or on you are called resident bateria. Viruses are tens or hundreds of times smaller than bacteria. They are not cellular, but consist of a core of genetic material surrounded by a protective coat of protein. Viruses are able to survive and reproduce only in the living cells of a host. Once a virus invades a living cell, it directs the cell to make new virus particles. These new viruses are released into the surrounding tissues, and seek out new cells to infect.